What is continuous improvement

[edit] Introduction

Quality seems to be prone to the use of terms as synonyms even when they have a specific meaning. As quality professionals we are expected to be precise and to know what the terminology in our discipline is intended to be.

“Continuous Improvement”, “Continual Improvement”, and “Process Quality Improvement” (PQI) seems to refer to the same concept, improving something. As so, people are tempted to use it interchangeably. This article aims to clarify what each definition means, to provide some background and to offer a view of their benefits, risks and how to get real improvement.

[edit] History and Definition

[edit] Process Quality Improvement

The word “process” comes from the Latin “processus” meaning an advancing. A proper definition is not available in the main online dictionaries (Merriam-Webster, Collins, Cambridge Dictionary), and only a couple propose “process improvement” as a result. None offers “process quality improvement”.

Cambridge Dictionary defines “process improvement” as “the job of examining the processes used in a company, department, project, etc. to see how they can be made more effective”.

Matthews (2005) proposes four main dimensions of the concept of PQI, linking them to the literature.

Table 1 - Dimensions of Process Improvement (Matthews, 2015)

Eventually, PQI can be defined as “improving performance by means of improving operational processes” (Matthews, 2015). In our article, Process Quality Improvement and Process Improvement are used as synonyms, even though the choice is arguable as the two definitions could be further investigated.

Matthews (2015) creates a link among Quality Improvement (QI), Process Improvement (PI), and Continuous Improvement (CI).

Figure 1 - Link among QI, PI, and CI (Matthews, 2015)

Trying to summarise, we can define quality as the ignition for PQI that, on its own, represents a short-term performance improvement; when PQI is repeated or is part of different initiatives, it generates either continual or continuous improvement, so long term performance improvement. This definition is aligned with the literature that considers PQI as the central point to operations management; the starting point to achieve the other improvements.

[edit] Continuous Vs. Continual Improvement

Continuous Improvement, also referred to as CQI – Continuous Quality Improvement”, is a concept widely used but not so well defined. It is often used as a synonym with “Continual Improvement” and “Continuous Process Improvement”.

Eaton (2013) underlines that the concept of CI goes back for hundreds if not thousands of years; the continuous improvement of ancient weapon and pottery production processes are evidence. (Ford, 2019).

Other authors (ASQ) maintain a more cautious approach, referring to “continuous improvement” in a company back to American Companies like National Cash Register and Lincoln Electric in 1894. In the beginning, continuous improvement was intended to improve the workspace environment. Later, the focus moved to productivity improvement and work simplification. In the early 1950s, Japanese companies like Toshiba, Matsushita and Toyota launched their continuous development programs.

It was with ISO9001:2018 that the terminology evolved from continuous to continual improvement.

Regardless of the wide use of the terminology “continuous improvement”, quite surprisingly both the Merrell and the Oxford online dictionaries do not show any definition neither for “continuous improvement” nor for “continual improvement”. The Cambridge Dictionary defines only “continuous improvement” as “the process of making regular small changes and improvements to the products, services, etc. of a company rather than a few big changes”.

However, all three dictionaries define the term “continuous” as a nonstop activity, while “continual” as an activity happening often. So, continuous improvement implies a process of improvement that never stops. “Continual improvement” refers to a cyclical approach to a task; an activity that has a start and an end and aims to an improvement. Once the improvement is obtained, the activity is terminated.

It is evident how the continuous approach is a long-lasting, virtually never-ending effort. Continual improvement, on the opposite, is a more concentrated and specific approach; the elements to be considered may be the same as per the continuous improvement; however, these elements will be tailored to a phased approach.

The American Society for Quality proposes that continual improvement can be used towards the organisation’ employees – internal customers (ASQ).

Referring to the ISO9001:2000, Persse (2006) stated that ISO9001 requires continuous improvement through taking actions to correct or refine the quality management system, and through building safeguards into the program to prevent defects or errors. Paraphrasing, we can argue that ISO9001:2000 focused on continuous improvement as a result of two areas for continual improvements: QMS sublimation and error-proof approach.

While the comment is not valid for the current edition of the ISO9001, it allows us to speculate that the continuous improvement can be an uninterrupted sequence of continual improvements. ASQ formulates the two definitions as follows:

• Continual Improvement – discontinuous processes of improvement; so, different approaches and various areas are involved.
• Continuous Improvement – a subset of continual improvements focusing on linear, incremental improvement within a process.

Figure 2 - Continuous Vs. Continual Improvement

Adding all the three types of improvements in a single image, we can see that the smallest unit is the process improvement; the repetition of improvements in that process is a type of continual improvement; the simultaneous presence of various continual improvements produces continuous improvement.

Figure 3 - Continuous, Continual, and Process Improvement

Singh & Singh (2013) highlighted that continuous improvement can be evolutionary and revolutionary; “in the former case, improvements take place as a result of regular, incremental changes, while in the latter case, major changes take place as a result of an innovative idea or technology, or simply as a result of accumulating incremental improvements.”

Matthews (2015) identifies four dimensions of continuous improvement, coming from different authors, as shown below.

Table 2 - Dimensions of Continuous Improvement (Matthews, 2015)

An example of continual improvement is the review of the concrete preparation in order to reduce the time between the actual production of the material and its use at the site. This improvement can proceed in phases, as each individual improvement may require some time to be implemented and verified; once it is settled, a new phase of improvement may start to refine the process even more.

The above, however, can be one of the simultaneous improvements the business is doing: different processes may be under review and change to reach the desired outcome. Altogether, these initiatives (continual improvements) can be considered as a form of continuous improvement.

Figure 4 - Continuous, Continual, and Process Improvement: an example

[edit] An attempt to arrive at a definite view of continuous improvement

While dictionaries may be waiting for the researchers to provide a better and universally accepted definition, the latter has not yet accomplished the task.

Lahy and Found, attempting to define a general theory of continuous improvement, offered a review of the literature and highlighted ambiguities in the way the concept is intended among various authors. Questions they investigated are:

• “Is it a concept, philosophy and set of behaviours or is it a collection of tools and techniques? Or is it both?”
• “Is it limited to improving what is already done, or also includes doing new things and innovating?”
• “Is it an organisational, team or individual level phenomenon.”
• “What is the scale and size of change that continuous improvement refers to?”
• “Is learning a separate topic from continuous improvement or … (are) the two … inextricably linked?”
• “Is a means to an end, or … (is) it the outcome of the means, or both.”

For each of the questions is possible to find authors who stand for either of the possible answers. This generates ambiguities and the terminology has reached a so wide use to push some authors to give up on the idea of a definitive view. As an example, Michaela et al. (1996) stated:

“Because a shift to continuous improvement as a way of working has implications for so many aspects of the organisation (strategy, operations, human resource policies and practices etc.) it is impractical to provide a complete or definitive list of activities entailed by continuous improvement or conditions for its success”.

Lahy and Found concluded that there is not a theory of continuous improvement that meets the “criteria for a good theory” as defined by Schmenner and Swink.

This plethora of definitions and the methodologies referred to deal with the various types of improvements can generate confusion. To provide a compass to the reader, we want to offer a way to possibly better understand the concepts of continuous, continual and process quality improvement. The three concepts spin around two main criteria:

1. Timeframe

• PQI can be a once in a lifetime event (not suggesting doing so, though!)
• Continual relates to periodic improvements
• Continuous is uninterrupted

2. Level of detail we are operating at:

• PQI can relate to a single step of a process
• Continual can still focus on the same detail but becomes a periodic series of events fine-tuning that step
• Continuous would require an overlap of different activities, of any size and at any level, creating a flow that never stops.

Ideally, there can be continuous improvement within a department, but it is more likely that the continuous improvement will involve the entire company. However, in principle small and medium enterprises lack resources to ensure a never-ending improvement. Hence, we state that the most desirable situation is the continual improvement through process quality improvements within the organisation; small periodic steps up to a higher level of efficiency and effectiveness.

As Feigenbaum said, continuous improvement is necessary if one is to stay competitive and that improvement in quality makes everything better (ASQ).

[edit] How to identify the need for Quality Process Improvement?

PQI can be dealt with in different ways. Each industry may have its preferred way to act which can be replicated in other contexts.

Cahps (2017) described the experience of the health care system from which a four steps path can be adopted:

• Focus on the small units that perform core activities involving the clients. Once identified, the best teams or production units should be selected to propose ideas, implement and assess any improvement. If the result is considered acceptable, then the solution can be scaled to the other parts of the organisation.
• Apply the Plan-Do-Study-Act cycle. Attention must be given to choosing goals, strategies and action plans.
• Use a model of improvements, like Lean or Six Sigma.
• Use team strategies and facilitators.

In 2005, Statz issued a Technical Report detailing the results from the activities done by the Practical Software and Systems Measurement community about handling process improvement. Even though the paper was produced from the experience of professionals involved in software development, it shows many contributors from top market players, like BAE Systems and Lockheed Martin, and offers a good guide to have a comprehensive view on the matter. Process improvement is divided in phases, as follows:

• Ares of Measurement for PI – areas of PI that have needs for measures.
• Measuring the Value of Process Improvement – a primary area to be measured to understand if the PI can be done and if it can eventually meet the goals of the organisation.
• Measuring Readiness for PI – if the company is ready for the change and can commit to it.
• Measuring PI Progress – control the progress of the project against its plan.

Something interesting that can be used beyond the field of software development, is the list of questions proposed for the phase of Measuring the Value of PI, reported in the table below.

Figure 5 - Questions to check if a process needs improvement (Statz, 2005)

[edit] How to get Continuous Improvement?

If the focus is on PQI, then the Methodologies that can be referred to are, for example, PDCS, DMAIC, 8D, or 4Q – the four Quadrants, data-driven problem solving and continuous improvement methodology developed by ABB (Aichouni et al., 2021).

If the interest is for continuous or continual improvement, there are differences. Some tools and methodologies can be the same as per PQI; this should not be a surprise as it may depend on the extent the characteristics of each tool or methodology match the two criteria of continuous improvement we have presented before; timeframe and level of detail we are operating at.

The ASQ mentions continuous improvement against several methodologies and tools:

• Lean and Kaizen
• Six Sigma
• Benchmarking
• Taguchi loss function, which “translates any deviation of a product from its target parameter into a financial measure” (ASQ). Taguchi loss function is considered a driver for continuous improvement (ASQ).
• Total Quality Management (Bhuyan and Baghel, 2005)

Winter (1994) advised that continuous improvement is also achieved in Total Quality programs through employees’ suggestions, even if generated via competitions to achieve rewards.

Continual improvement is instead linked to (ASQ):

1. PDCA-PDSA (Plan-do-study-act) – Shewhart PDCS and Deming PDSA cycles represent the main points of continual improvement.
2. Supplier improvement, intended in a wide sense, so, related to products, processes, systems, value and competitive pricing, strategies (ASQ). Examples are:

• Supplier audits
• Corrective and preventive action
• Feedback to suppliers
• Monitoring process improvements. This can be achieved by providing technical personnel or sharing resources to solve problems, including inviting suppliers to training courses.
• An integrated training program involving any levels within the company.

Al the above may not be new to the most skilled quality practitioners. Each topic can be further split into tools and techniques for which we refer to other articles from the Chartered Quality Institute.

However, it is not sufficient to apply tools and methodologies to obtain improvement. In his research based on 600 respondents in the automotive sector in Norway, Holtskog showed that: “Motivation for doing continuous improvement is built on commonly understood goals and engaged leadership. But it is necessary to have a long-time perspective to it with an underlying understanding of people’s natural need for achieving goals or goal orientation. Leadership is to cheer and support this orientation and focus the achieving efforts in accordance to company’s strategy.”

Jung et al (2009) researched the relationship between competitive strategy, TQM and CI of international project management. Their findings suggest that the technology-based TQM elements are less effective than the human resource-based in positively influencing CI of international project management.

When thinking of continuous improvement as something that can only produce benefits, it is critical to understand that implementation can be hard. While developing a framework based on the ten principles shown below, Kaye and Anderson (1998) stated that “the achievement of quality and continuous improvement is far from easy. There are many complex variables at play within an organisation and there must be a robust framework against which to assess and measure performance. There must be a planned and integrated approach otherwise quality will continue to be seen as an ‘‘add on’’ and very little improvement will be achieved.”

Figure 6 - Ten essential criteria of continuous improvement (Kaye & Anderson, 1998)

While the article is not recent, the topics appear still actual.

More recently, Hill et al. (2020) arrived at similar conclusions. They conducted a review of the effectiveness of continuous quality improvement for developing professional practice and improving health care outcomes. They concluded that “benefits from CI are uncertain, reflecting both the poor quality of evaluations and the complexities of health services themselves. Further mixed-methods evaluations are needed to understand how the health service can use this proven approach.” Paraphrasing, the more complex the system to improve is, the less certain and wide can be the benefits. This shall not discourage, though. The good side of having a non-stop approach is that every little step forward is an achievement and every setback a lesson. Furthermore, each achievement shall be evaluated by referring to the status quo and the context; benchmarking is good to define a direction but comparing data without defining the proper context can be misleading.

Singh & Singh (2013) presented a list of barriers to the CI, as defined by various authors in the previous decades.

Figure 7 - Barriers to Continuous Improvement (Singh & Singh, 2013)

A discussion can be done about process improvement and operational improvement, which is not within the scope of this article.

McLean et al. (2017) offered a review of 72 journal articles to identify the main reasons of the failure of continuous improvement initiatives in the manufacturing environment. Various authors cited by McLean et al. report that improvement initiatives – either as Lean Manufacturing, Six Sigma, Continuous Improvement implementation – have success levels between 40% and 10%. McLean et al. suggested that the failure of improvement initiatives may depend on:

1. Motives and expectations:

• the wrong reason; as an example, not based on company needs or unrealistic
• lack of the sense of urgency
• lack of focus on customer
• misunderstanding about the real outcome of improvement techniques
• employee’s motivation, expectations, or resistance to the change

2. Organisational culture and environment
3. Management leadership
4. Implementation approach:

• Poor implementation
• Partial implementation or “quick fix” approach
• Improving in silos instead of as an integrated approach
• Over relying on consultants as the only ones responsible for the change

5. Training
6. Project Management:

• Selecting the wrong project for the change
• Lack of or inadequate resources
• Overwhelming scope
• Poor project execution

7. Employee involvement levels

• Lack of time
• Lack of skills
• Lack of vision
• Failure to invest in developing or to appoint the right employees

8. Feedback and results

• Poor, Limited or restricted communication flows
• Focus on the short-terms results (while improvements may need time to produce positive results)
• Lack of measurable results in the long term

While the article explores deeply many cases, the above summary seems adequate to give a satisfactory overview.

A good synthesis was expressed by Chakravorty (2009), as mentioned by Matthews (2015): “The problem is that managers waste their time in adopting the newest improvement tool, using consultants, and spending very little time in driving process improvement from the bottom.”

A final word is on the need to see the company as a whole entity. Improving a single process or an area without the full picture of the entire business may eventually result in an ineffective or even dangerous activity. The new improvement might clash with the needs of another department or process in the organisation, with the result of having wasted time and resources.

[edit] Is Continuous Improvement necessary?

Given the uncertainty in the literature and the difficulty in implementing continuous improvement, it is legitimate to question the real need for continuous improvement, specifically when the organisation is already performing well. A quick answer would be that the improvement is at the core of the quality world; missing that, all other disciplines involved in the company can be badly affected. On a side, a company is never perfect (who or what is, after all?); improvement is the way to progress to a better level of:

• Efficiency
• Effectiveness of the work processes
• Costs reduction
• People motivation
• Better organisational culture

The list could continue, including environmental protection through waste reduction and better use of resources. But the positive impact in not only within the organisation and its impact on the world at a given time. The external context keeps changing; markets, regulations, technological progress. Continuous improvement is what can help to deal with all that.

As seen, it requires resources and small firms may be in lack of them. In this case, a word of advice is to move to continual improvement; small steps forward, at your pace, are better than remaining static in a changing world.

Regardless of the size and revenues of the organisation, the risks are part of the game and should be neither considered as an unbreakable wall nor underestimated. The consequences can be similar and equally bad:

• loss of opportunities
• lack of growth
• turnover of personnel who may not recognise themselves in a company refusing to evolve
• economic loss for investing in the wrong improvement or in the wrong way
• loss of market share
• lack of competitiveness.

The list can be longer, but the message seems clear.

Suzaki (1987) reminded us that “there is no end to improvement”. The same point made by Deming: “improve constantly and forever” (Singh & Singh, 2013). With that in mind, it is up to us to choose the direction and focus our energies on achieving the expected outcomes.

[edit] Continuous and Discontinuous Improvement

In 1994, Doct. Russ Ackoff – a university professor and leading organisational theorist - gave a presentation on improvement, proposing four main principles.

He pointed out at the importance of avoiding failures – which he identified as not meeting the customer’s expectations – by focusing on a systemic approach. He stated that failures happen when the improvement of a part is not seen in the context of the system the part belongs to. An example he made is the possibility to take from each model of cars the best part and try to assemble a new vehicle with all the best of the best: the result would probably not even be a vehicle. It would not work because the individual parts would not fit into the new system. They were designed for something different: the parts are interdependent and to work at their best, they have to be designed for the “whole” they will belong to. So, a first principle in continuous improvement is that the improvement of one part is so if the improvement of the system improves as well as a consequence.

Second principle is to maintain the focus on the target to be achieved, not on what to avoid.

Third, Ackoff introduced the concept of discontinuous improvement, stating that continuous improvement is not as important as discontinuous improvement. Creativity leads, as it is discontinuous in nature, and can support the development of a leader.

Last point recalls Peter Drucker quote about the distinction between doing things right and doing the right thing. According to Ackoff “doing the wrong thing right is not nearly as good as doing the right thing wrong.” An example is the Japanese automobile industry, usually referred to as an example of great quality; but, looking at towns where the traffic congestion is so bad and the pollution so high that children are prevented from going to school to reduce their exposure to it, the perspective of what quality should be changes dramatically. The topics are efficiency – how good the quality of a car is – and effectiveness – how the use of cars is affecting us, what the real value that the industry is creating is. Eventually, the relation between efficiency and effectiveness is like the difference between knowledge and wisdom.

[edit] Conclusions

We have seen that the terminology is not yet universally accepted, and people tend to refer to different terms as synonyms.

Trying to offer a brief description of the main concepts related to continuous, continual and process quality improvement, we believe the reader has some more elements to develop further their knowledge and explore the plethora of methodologies and tools to achieve the improvement that better fits their context.

Successful companies are never satisfied with the status they reach; they keep developing and strive for continuous improvement.

It could be argued that the improvement must have a goal, as the authors cited in this article reminded us. However, great discoveries have been found by exploring or looking into something different than the initial target, gaining unexpected benefits. Even a pause in the research to improve can be beneficial at times. Alexander Fleming took two weeks break while he was studying the virus of influenza. During that period, a mould appeared on the samples and started destroying the virus. It is what we know as penicillin. Somehow, the pause typical of the continual improvement approach generated extremely good results.

When the improvement meets the constraint of resources, it is advisable to define clear goals and try to be as efficient as possible. But, if the context allows for a vaster exploration, being ready to accept some loss, then improvement as a form of research for the unknown can also be beneficial.

This article was originally written by Giorgio Mannelli on behalf of the CQI Construction Special Interest Group, reviewed by Colin Harley, members of the Competency Working Group and approved for publication.

--ConSIG CWG

[edit] Related articles on Designing Buildings

• Continuous improvement process
• Lean construction.
• Lessons learned.
• Plan do check act.
• Poka-yoke.
• Quality.
• Six sigma.

[edit] References

• Ackoff, R.L. (1994). Continuous and Discontinuous Improvement. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OqEeIG8aPPk
• Aichouni, A.B.E, Ramlie, F., Abdullah, H. (2021). Process improvement methodology selection in manufacturing: A literature review perspective. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences, 8(3) 2021, Pages: 12-20. IASE.
• ASQ (no date). Continuous Improvement. https://asq.org/quality-resources/continuous-improvement
• Cahps (2017). The CAHPS Ambulatory Care Improvement Guide. Practical Strategies for Improving Patient Experience Section 4: Ways to Approach the Quality Improvement Process. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
• Eaton, M. (2013). Cited (among others) in Ford, 2019.
• Ford, S. (2019). Continuous Process Improvement as a Function of Program Management. PM World Journal Vol. VIII, Issue VII – August 2019 www.pmworldjournal.net
• Hill, J.E., Stephani, A., Sapple, P., Clegg, A.J. (2020). The effectiveness of continuous quality improvement for developing professional practice and improving health care outcomes: a systematic review. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-020-0975-2
• Holtskog, H. (2013). Continuous Improvement beyond the Lean understanding. 2212-8271 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Professor Pedro Filipe do Carmo Cunha. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2013.06.035
• Jung, J.Y, Wang, Y.J., Wu, S. (2009). Competitive strategy, TQM practice, and continuous improvement of international project management. A contingency study. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management Vol. 26 No. 2, 2009 pp. 164-183 Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0265-671X DOI 10.1108/02656710910928806
• Kaye, M. and Anderson, R. (1998). Continuous improvement: the ten essential criteria. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 16 No. 5, 1999, pp. 485-506. # MCB University Press, 0256-671X
• Lahy, A. and Found, P. (2015). Towards a Theory of Continuous Improvement. University of Buckingham. ResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318097932
• Matthews, R.L. (2015). Process, Continuous and Quality Improvement: Disintegrating and Reintegrating Operational Improvement? Total Quality Management and Business Excellence. DOI: 10.1080/14783363.2015.1081812
• McLean, R.S., Antony, J. and Dahlgaard, J.J. (2017). Failure of Continuous Improvement initiatives in manufacturing environments: a systematic review of the evidence. Total Quality Management, Vol. 28, No. 3, 219-237, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14783363.2015.1063414
• MyNewLab (14 Dec, no year). Accidental Scientific Discoveries and Breakthroughs. InterFocus.
• Statz, J. (2005). Measurement for Process Improvement – Technical Report. v. 1.0. Practical Software and Systems Measurement.
• Suzaki, K. (1987). The new manufacturing challenge – Techniques for Continuous Improvement. The Free Press, A Division of Simon & Schuster Inc., 1230 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10020. ISBN 0-02-932040-2
• Winter, S.G. (1994). Jitendra V. Singh, Evolutionary Dynamics of Organizations. Oxford University Press. ISBN:9780195358919, 0195358910